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not all individuals who encounter fake news are also spreading it. grinberg et al.11 examined the sharing of fake news in the us 2016 election and found that engagement with fake news sources was highly concentrated among specific sub-populations. individuals most likely to engage with fake news sources were conservative-leaning, older, and those who were highly engaged in political news. hopp, ferucci and vargo12 identified people with politically extreme views and distrust in mainstream media as the main disseminators of fake news. in a similar vein, guess, nagler, and tucker13 found that conservative people and those older than 65 are more likely to share pro-trump fake news. older people are also over-represented among super-spreaders of fake news11. by contrast, buchanan14 found that younger, male, and less educated individuals were more likely to spread disinformation they encountered on social media in the uk. in general, men share more unverified information15. compared to the ability to detect fake news, more studies on sharing fake news have investigated individual factors. however, most of these studies focused on the united states. this immediately raises the question of whether findings are similar or different in politically less polarized countries and where a significant part of political and societal information comes from highly reputed nationwide public broadcasting (such as the bbc in the uk or ard and zdf in germany). for the comparative analysis, we conducted large-scale surveys in germany (1223 respondents) and the united kingdom (1156 respondents); see table 1. the comparison between germany and the uk is particularly interesting as the uk has experienced a wave of populist policies in the wake of brexit-mirrored in the media landscape. in contrast, these populist debates have played a minor role in germany. hence, there may be a broader acceptance of fact-ignoring arguments in the uk. it is also useful to study these countries because of the extensive debate in germany about limiting the spread of misinformation and hate via social media. within four years, three bills passed in the german parliament that aimed to combat hate crimes more effectively, punishing false news and criminal content on social network platforms. for instance, social networks must report on their dealing with hate crimes and maintain an effective complaint management system. even though the law did not address fake news in general but only the spread of hate via fake news, the controversial public debate around these government regulations18 may have sharpened the people's senses when encountering fake news in general. such a public debate was absent in the uk. consequently, we hypothesize that there is less detection and more fake news sharing in the uk compared to germany. this should be mostly a level effect, as it is unclear why particular sociodemographic groups would be affected differently by the public debates in the two countries.

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